Wie sagt man das auf Englisch (US)? How do you say 先輩、後輩 in working environment? Do you say “superior” for people like boss, and “subordinate” for people like assistant?

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In general, in US companies, people are always addressed by their name alone, and only occasionally referred to by their title, so there isn't much use for terms like 先輩、後輩 in English.

Title is more important than seniority in US businesses too. Everyone with the same title is considered on the same level, and there's no distinction between more senior or more junior employees with the same title.

You'll see "superior" and "subordinate" in formal communication, like the rules set out by a Human Resources department or in employment contracts, but these are descriptions and not titles. You wouldn't refer to someone as, say, "Superior Jones" the way you'd use 「ジョーンズ先輩」 in Japanese.